SYLLABLES

Syllables

Speech sounds are combined into syllables and syllables into words which are put together to form sentences. A syllable may consist of one phoneme, i.e. speech sound or more. But it does not have more than one vowel sound. A vowel sound, as a matter of fact, forms its nucleus. So a word has many syllables as there are vowel sounds in it. The structure of a syllable may be conveniently reduced to the following formula.
(Cn) +V+ (Cn)
where Cn stands for an indefinite number of consonants; V stands for a vowel sound and brackets indicate that the consonants are not obligatory.

A word is a linguistic entity composed of one or more phonemes. The words I, oh, consist of one phoneme each – the diphthong /ai/ and / u/ respectively. The words bee and saw have two phonemes each - /b/ and /i: / and /s/ and / / respectively. The word ‘strain’ /strein/ has only one syllable. Its structure is cccvc.

Ex: again; / gen/; -gen; v-cvc
Bold /b uld/; cvcc

Note: There are a few syllables which end in /l/, /m/ or /n/ and have no vowel sounds as nuclei; for example, the second syllable in the words ‘little’, ‘bottom’ & ‘mutton’. These are exceptions to the general rule indicated.

Ex: Monosyllabic words
I – diphthong /ai/
Oh – diphthong / /
Disyllabic
Bee - /b/ and /i:/
Saw - /s/ and / /
Trisyllabic
Cat - /k/, / æ / & /t/
Big - /b/, /i/ & /g/
Tetra
Crack - /k/, /r/, / æ / & /k/
Train - /t/, /r/, /ei/ & /n/
Poly
Blast - /b/, /l/, /a: /, /s/, /t/
Friend - /f/, /r/, /e/, /n/ and /d/
















Word Accent

There are a number of words in every language which have more than one syllable. The English words tailor and teacher have two syllables each.
Not all syllables in an utterance in English are spoken with equal emphasis. In an English word of more than one syllable, one of the syllables is pronounced with greater prominence than the other (s). The syllable that is pronounced more prominently than the other(s) in the same word is said to be accented or to receive the accent.
Ex: Father / /, about / /

The greater prominence of a syllabic may be due to stress or greater breath force, but often the length of the vowel in a syllable, stress and pitch change work together to render a syllable more prominent than its neighboring syllables. In polysyllabic words, with several syllables, more than one syllable may be prominent.
For example, in the word ‘Examination’ / ig-zæ-mi-nei- ∫n/ which has five syllables, the syllable that has the minimum prominence is the fourth syllable /nei/, the syllable that has the next degree of prominence is the second syllable /z æ/; the other syllables /ig/, /mi/ & /∫n/ will be pronounced with less prominence than the two syllables listed above. Of these three syllables /ig/ will have the maximum prominence (but less than /nei/ and /zæe/) and /∫n/ the minimum prominence and /mi/ will have prominence in between these two. So this word has two prominent or strong syllables - /nei/ and /zæ/. Of these two, a listener will hear /nei/ as being more prominent because, apart of their syllable being articulated with greater breath force, there will be a pitch movement on this syllable. In a polysyllabic word the syllable on which a pitch movement takes place is said to receive ‘primary accent’ or ‘tonic accent’. Any other prominent syllable in the same word is said to receive ‘secondary accent’.
Different dictionaries mark word-accent in different ways. The method used in most modern books on linguistics and phonetics is the foll.
Primary accent is marked with a vertical bar ( ) above and in front of the syllable to which it refers. Secondary accent is marked with a vertical bar below and in front of the syllable to which it refers.

Ex: English word Phonetic transcription

Categorical / /
Comprehensible /
Conventionality /
Deposition /
Examination /
International /
Interpolation /
Notification /
1) What is more difficult for non-native speakers of English is to place the accent on the correct syllable(s) of a word. It is difficult to identify the syllable with greater prominence as accent in English word is both free and fixed. It is fixed in the sense the min accent always falls on a particular syllable (except in a few cases determined by the rhythmic pattern). It is free because it is not associated with a particular syllable of a word.

For example some disyllabic words receive accent on their first syllable ( teacher, wisdom, cancel) some other disyllabic words receive stress on their second syllable(be come, can teen, re mark)
Trisyllabic: advertise, anything, beautiful.
IInd syllable: a greement, ar tistic, de velop
IIIrd syllable: ciga rette, disap point, under stand
So a non native learner should learn which syllable of a polysyllabic word is accented by referring to a good dictionary.


II) There is a second difficulty about English word accent and this is owing to a shift in the accented syllable. In derivatives a shift in the accent is quite common. There are, no doubt, a number of words like a gree and a greement in which the derived word takes the accent on the same syllable as in the word from which it is derived.

1. a cademy (primary accent on IInd syllable)
aca demic (primary accent on third syllable)
acade mician (primary accent on fourth syllable)

2. advertise (primary accent on first syllable)
ad vertisement (primary accent on second syllable)
3. ex amine (primary accent on second syllable)
exami nee (primary accent on third syllable)
exami nation (primary accent on fourth syllable)

4. in ferior (primary accent on second syllable)
inferi ority (primary accent on fourth syllable)

5. photograph (primary accent on first syllable)
pho tographer(primary accent on second syllable)
photo graphic (primary accent on third syllable)

6. polotics (primary accent on first syllable)
po litical (primary accent on second syllable)
poli tician (primary accent on third syllable)

7. res ponsible (primary accent on second syllable)
response bility (primary accent on fourth syllable)

III) There is yet another aspect of English word – accent. There are a number of disyllabic words in English in which word – accent depends upon whether the words are used as nouns/adjectives or as verbs. If these words are used as nouns or adjectives, the accent is on the first syllable and if these are used as verbs, the accent is on the second syllable.

Word Noun/Adjective Verb
Absent / /
Contrast / /
Digest / /
Export / /
Import / /
Object / /
Perfect / /
There are words like limit, order, re mark, visit, etc. which are accented on the same syllable whether they are used as nouns or as verbs.

Accent In Compound Words

A compound word is composed of two separable words. The two words may or may not be hyphenated. In most compound words in English the primary accent falls on one of the two elements. The most common type in English is the first of the two elements receiving the primary accent.

Ex: air-raid
Bookshelf
Cardboard
Footprint
Rain-coat
School-bus
Tea-party
A few compound words with –ever and –self as the second elements in which the second element receives the primary accent.
Ex: her self, him self, my self, them selves, how ever,
what ever, when ever, who ever.

There are other compound words in which both the elements are accented, but the primary accent falls on the second element.
Ex: after- noon , home- made, post- graduate,
bad- tempered, country- house, good- looking ,
Vice- chancellor.
There are, however, a few useful rules for word-accentual patterns in English.


Rule 1:
Words with weak prefixes always take the accent on the root.

Ex: aboard /
Abroad /
Ahead /
Alone /
Because /
Become /
Below /
Beneath /

Rule 2:
The in-flexional suffixes –ed, -es and –ing do not affect the accent.

-ed: recom mend recom mened
re late re lated
so licit so licited
sub mit sub mitted

-es: com pose com poses
dis ease dis eases
focus focusses
suc cess suc cesses

-ing: ad vance ad vancing
com mit com mitting
happen happening
reason reasoning
Rule 3:
The derivational suffixes –age, -ance, -en, -er, -ess, -ful, -hood, -ice, -ish, -ive, -less, -ly, -ment, -ness, -or, -ship, -ter, -ure and –zen do not normally affect the accent.

For example,

-age carry carriage
cover coverage
hermit hermitage
marry marriage

-ance an noy an noyance
ap pear ap pearance
at tend at tendance
per form per formance

-en bright brighten
light lighten

-er at tend at tender
be gin be ginner
common commoner
per form per former

-ess cator actress
author authoress
con doctor con ductress
tiger tigress

Rule 4:
Words ending in –ion take the primary accent on the penultimate syllable. Here are a few examples:

admi ration falsifi cation
appli cation motion
combi nation nation
deco ration notion
de termi nation preparation
ex ami nation station

Rule 5:
Words ending in –ic, -ical, -ically, -ious, -ial and –ially take the primary accent on the syllable preceding the suffix.
For example:

-ic a polo getic
pa thetic
sympa thetic
ter rific

-ical bio logical
el ectrical
optical
psychol ogical

-ically chemically
eco nomically
psycho logically
sta tistically
-ious a trocious
cere monious
fal lacious
no torious

-ial com mercial
confi dential
dicta torial
me morial

-ially cate gorially
com merically
confi dentially
dra matically


Rule 6:
Words ending in –ity take the accent on the ante-penultimate syllable, or the third syllable from the end.

Ex:
a bility gene rosity
ca pacity magna nimity
elec tricity o pacity
e normity oppor tunity
fu tility ratio nality

ACCENT, RHYTHM AND INTONATION

In English connected speech we can find accentual features that are similar to the accentual features that of polysyllabic words said in isolation. In a polysyllabic word said in isolation, one syllable stands out from the rest
Ex: sub mit
The second syllable is more prominent than the first syllable. In a polysyllabic word two syllables, sometime stands out from the rest, one carrying primary or tonic accent and the other carrying secondary accent.
Ex: vari bility - varia à secondary accent
bility àprimary accent

Similary, in connected speech some words stand out from the rest which are marked with a vertical bar ( ).

Ex: He came.
Meet me at ten.
Buy me a pen.
I ran a race.
Turn to your right.
I want to buy a pen.
Sing a song.

Just as in the case of a polysyllabic word, how a syllable or two stand out from the rest, in connected speech, a word or two receives the primary/secondary accent. This is usually the last prominent syllable to receive the primary accent. Let us now rewrite the sentences listed above with both primary and secondary accent marked. Non-tonic accent is marked with the usual stress[ ] and tonic accent is marked with [ ] if the tone is falling and [ ] if the tone is rising.
Ex: He came (there is only one accented syllable and it automatically receives the tonic accent)
Meet me at ten.
Buy me a pen.
I ran a race.
Turn to your right.
I want to buy a pen.
Sing a song.

A word like examinative (5 syllables) will be pronounced e xami nation in isolation, with the syllables; æa and na standing out from the rest. Of these two syllables, will carry secondary accent and na will carry primary accent. Similarly, a sentence like ‘I want to buy a pen’ (which has 6 syllables – 6 words of which is monosyllabic) is pronounced with the syllables ‘want’ & ‘buy’ receive secondary accent and the syllable pen receives primary accent. So connected speech exhibits features of accent that are similar to the accentual features of polysyllabic words said in isolation.
In connected speech, only that syllable of a polysyllabic word is made prominent which is prominent when the word is pronounced in isolation. In other words, those syllables in a polysyllabic word that do not receive the accent when it is said in isolation do not have the potentiality of receiving the accent when it forms part of connected speech. The choice of the syllable receiving primary accent depends on the meaning the speaker wants to convey. In the first example He came or He came if the speaker wants to emphasize that the person referred to as he came and not any one else, he will then pronounce the word he with primary accent. Both He came and He, came are possible, but He came (with no accent on came) is not possible. A few sentences are given below with the appropriate stress marks.
Ex: I should go
I should go
I should go

Where are you going?
Where are you going?
Where are you going?

This shows that the accentual patterns in connected speech are frees than those of individual words. In normal speech , content or lexical words are more likely to receive accent than form or grammatical words, content words are nouns, adjectives, adverbs, main verbs and demonstrative and interrogative pronouns. Form words are auxiliary or helping verbs, prepositions, articles, conjunctions, personal pronouns and relative pronouns.
A very important point to remember is that English is said to have a stress-timed rhythm. This means that in an English utterance, the strong or prominent or accented syllables have the tendency to occur at regular intervals, of time, irrespective of the number of weak or unaccented syllables between any two accented syllables.
Ex: 1. Tom has just returned from London.
2. Gopal’s friend Patel received a prize from the president.


In Example 1 there is one unaccented syllable between any two accented syllables and therefore it is quite easy for a speaker to speak the sentence in such a way that the accented syllables Tom, just, turned and on occur at regular intervals. Same is the case with the second sentence.
In the sentence
My friend has arranged for my return trip.

Though there is no unaccented syllable between turn and trip. The time interval between ranged and turn ( 3 unaccented syllables in between) and turn & trip, will approximately the same. This is a very important feature of English connected speech and if this feature is neglected, the characteristic rhythm of English will be lost.

Another important aspect of English rhythm is weak forms. There are a number of words in English which have two or more qualitative and quantitative patterns depending upon whether they are accented or not. When they are pronounced in isolation, the strong forms of these words are used. When they are unaccented the weak forms of these sounds are used. The weak forms exhibit reductions of the length of sounds, weakening of the vowels in them and also in the elision of vowels and consonants.

Articles strong form weak form
Ex: a /ei/ /∂/
an /æn/ /∂n/
the /∂i/ /∂i/ before a vowel
/∂∂/ before a consonant

Auxiliary verbs

am /æm/ /∂m/, /m/
can /kæn/ /k∂n/ /kn/
do /du:/ /du/ /d∂/ /d/
has /hæz/ /h∂z/ /∂z/ /z/ /s/
us /iz/ /z/, /s/
must /m^st/ /m∂st/ /m∂s/
will /wil/ /l/

Conjunctions

and /ænd/ /∂nd/, /nd/ ;/ ∂n/, /n/
than /ðæn/ /ð∂n/,
but /b^t/ /b∂t/

Others

be /bi:/ /bi/
her /h∂:/ /h∂/, /∂:/, /∂/
sir /s∂:/ /s∂/









SITUATIONAL DIALOGUES

First, read the entire dialogue silently and understand the context in which the conversation has taken place. You will notice that each dialogue is marked by a particular approach to the topic under discussion and is characterized by either humour, persuasion, witticism, fun or satire. Some dialogues are merely on a matter of personal interest or family relationship. If you work entirely on your own, you will have to play the role of both the speakers. While practising, try to bring about the change in your intonation pattern required by each utterance. You should also attempt to capture the spirit of the dialogue to make it sound life-like. It would be ideal if one person played one role. This can easily be done in a group. Two participants can speak out the dialogues and the others present can listen to it carefully for discussion after the performance.

Dialogue I:
This is a dialogue between a college-going girl and her father. Notice how tactfully she is able to persuade him to permit her to join a historical tour. She demolishes his objections and lessens his fears with sound arguments and with her ability to present facts promptly and convincingly. While practising take special care to reflect the changed mood of her father towards the end.

Richa: Daddy today is the last date to pay up for the tour.
Daddy: So what? Didn’t I tell you last night you aren’t
going?

Richa: Daddy please do reconsider. All my friends and
class fellows are joining the tour.
Daddy: I can’t believe it; Mathur and Chopra will never
permit their daughters.
Richa: They have, Daddy, they have. Both Sweta and
Swati are going. You can check if you so wish.
Daddy: How big is the group? Is it a mixed lot?
Richa: It certainly is. But I’m not a kind any more.
Haven’t you told me an umpteen number of times that confidence and courage are essential for a successful life. Both these I have in plenty. Haven’t you trained me that way?
Daddy: O.K. O.K. Don’t lecture me. What’s the point in
wasting so much time and money anyway?
Richa: You have the wrong idea, Daddy. It’s a historical tour. And we are going during the Dussehra holidays. In about Rs.1750 we shall be visiting Agra, Gwalior, Jhansi, Lucknow and Delhi.
Daddy: Does this amount cover only travel expenses?
Richa: No, Daddy. Apart from travel it includes board and lodging charges. But why are you smiling? Don’t you believe me?
Daddy: Well, my child. Bring the purse from the drawer of my study table.
Richa: So sweet of you, Daddy. You are great!
Daddy: Here you are, count the money.
Richa: Thanks a lot, Daddy. I’m off to college now.




Dialogue 2:
Two friends, Ajay and Beenu, discuss the plan of the latter to go on a tour during the vacation. The discussion is matter of fact and as such you are not required to emphasize any point. However, do use the appropriate intonation pattern required by individual utterances.

Ajay: You have a log vacation ahead of you. Do you plan to travel?
Beenu: Yes, I thought this year I would take the family on a tour of the country.
Ajay: That’s a good idea. There’re many historical places that you should see.
Beenu: That’s what I thought too. You can read about them but surely there’s no substitute for seeing it with your own eyes.
Ajay: Where do you plan to go?
Beenu: Well, I thought we’d visit Agra first.
Ajay: That’s one of the oldest cities in the country, isn’t it?
Beenu: Yes, that’s what I have read in books.
Ajay: Well, I have been there. I’m sure you will like the place. You must go to Fatehpur Sikiri too.
Beenu: Thank you, I think we could manage it.
Ajay: Do you plan to visit any other place?
Beenu: No, I think Agra is as far as we can get this time.
Ajay: Well, goodbye. Have a nice trip.
Beenu: Thanks, goodbye.



Dialogue 3:
This is a conversation between two friends, Rahul
and Prakash, who are talking casually about their studies.
Prakash appears to be a little more serious about his studies.
In the middle of the dialogue the taunt by Rahul evokes an
aggressive response. However, the conversation ends on an
even note. Try to bring out the varying moods of the
participants when you speak.

Rahul: Why weren’t you at the party? I was expecting to see you there.
Prakash: I had planed to go, but had to study.
Rahul: How’re your studies coming along?
Prakash: Fairly well, I’m just beginning to release that I must study more if I wish to do well.
Rahul: Are you going to cinema on Saturday?
Prakash: If I’m through studying, I may.
Rahul: Is studying all you do?
Prakash: Just about. Last week I had to get ready for an exam. This weekend I have to get ready for another.
Rahul: When do you hope to finish your exams?
Prakash: I don’t know, really. If I’m lucky, I may get through in May.
Rahul: What do you plan to do after your Graduation?
Prakash: I have yet to make up my mind. I’ve got a couple of good offers.




Dialogue 4:
Two members of a club are planning to arrange a
picnic. They go into the details of arrangement. Mark how
the short remarks keep the conversation going in a pleasant
manner. You will also notice that some of the suggestions
are made in the form of questions. While practicing keep
these points in mind and keep your voice friendly and
informal.

Amar: The weather’s getting warm enough for picnics now.
Bhuvan: Why don’t we have one next Saturday?
Amar: O.K. Let’s make it a club picnic.
Bhuvan: No, I don’t think there’s enough money in the club account.
Amar: Won’t we have enough to buy cold drinks and ice-creams.
Bhuvan: Yes, we have got enough for them.
Amar: Well, then, let’s tell everyone to bring his own lunch. Cold drinks and the desert can be charged to club account.
Bhuvan: That’s a good idea. Then we won’t need committees either.
Amar: Now, let’s see. Doesn’t Hari have a Maruti van?
Bhuvan: Yes, he does. Shall we ask him to cart the cold drinks?
Amar: I don’t think he’d mind.
Bhuvan: Do you know a good place to go?
Amar: No, I don’t. I haven’t been on a picnic around here?
Bhuvan: Say, doesn’t that park down by the Blue Lake have benches and tables?
Amar: I think it does. That would be an ideal spot.
Bhuvan: And if it’s warm enough, we can go swimming.

Dialogue 5:
This dialogue takes place in a restaurant where
Babita has gone to dine. Note the extremely polite and
business- like tone of the bearer, Asim, and the authoritative
tone of Babita. Through a deft variation in his syntactical
patterns Asim is able to secure an order from Babita.

Asim: May, I take your order, madam?
Babita: Yes, I would like to order dinner now. I will have one plate of this special fried chicken and two chapaties.
Asim: Yes, madam, what vegetables would you prefer? You can pick out any two from this list here.
Babita: I think I’ll have fried potatoes and beans.
Asim: You also have a choice of soup or salad.
Babita: Is the vegetable soup prepared here, or is it out of a can?
Asim: This is our own recipe, madam.
Babita: Then I’ll take the vegetable soup.
Asim: What are you going to have to drink?
Babita: Coffee, please.
Asim: Will you have it with your dinner or with dessert?
Babita: With the dessert.
Asim: Would you like to order the dessert now?
Babita: I might as well. Ice-cream, please.
Asim: Yes, madam. Thank you.
Dialogue 6:
In this dialogue between a doctor and a patient,
notice how gradually and tactfully the former convinces the
latter on the need for healthy living and demolishes a
number of false notions he has. Try to capture the persuasive,
and yet, firm tone of doctor. Note how the confidence of the
patient, in what he thought to be right, gives way to a
receptive attitude. While practicing, reflect this change in
attitude.

Doctor: Well, Gopal. There is nothing seriously wrong with you physically. Basically you are fit, that’s what the reports show.
Gopal: Then why is it doctor that I’m always so tense?
Doctor: I think your condition has a lot to do with your way of life or habits.
Gopal: Way of life? Habits?
Doctor: Yes, now you tell me. You smoke, don’t you?
Gopal: I’m afraid I do, doctor.
Doctor: Rather heavily, I imagine.
Gopal: About fifty a day, I suppose.
Doctor: You should do your best to stop, you know.
Gopal: I’ve tried to give up smoking several times but it’s no good.
Doctor: Fifty a day is over doing it, you must admit. You must cut it down. I want you to make a real effort.
Gopal: Well, it’s easy to say give it up or cut it down but, you know how difficult it is.



Doctor: In my opinion you have no choice. Either you make a real effort or there’s no chance of your feeling better. I could prescribe a tranquillizer but would that help? I would like to see you normal again. And that’s why I want to know a few more things.
Gopal: Right, Sir.
Doctor: Your eating habits, for example. What do you normally eat during the day?
Gopal: I’m a good eater. At about 8:30 a.m. I eat a good breakfast.
Doctor: A good breakfast? What is it?
Gopal: Usually three or four stuffed parathas, washed down with a couple of cups of tea. I really enjoy my breakfast.
Doctor: I can see you do, but I’d advise you to eat much less. We’ll come to that later on. Go on.
Gopal: Before lunch, I have one or two samosas at about 11.00 a.m. and a cup of tea. I’ve so much work in the office that I begin to feel hungry at regular intervals.
Doctor: And then lunch?
Gopal: Around 1.15 p.m. Lunch has to be real quick because I’ve to reach office at 2.00 p.m. and I want 15 min for the newspaper.
Doctor: Try not to hurry through lunch.
Gopal: But I do make up for it in the evening. My dinner is rather heavy and I eat it leisurely. Most evenings I read a novel or listen to the radio.


Doctor: You do obviously enjoy your food. That’s fine. But I recommended that you eat less and healthy food. Instead of having that enormous breakfast, for example, take something lite – chapaties with salad and a cup of milk. And, no samosas at 11.00 a.m. A cup of tea should do.
Gopal: I see. But what about lunch?
Doctor: Eat your lunch leisurely. Remember that your health is at stake, not your job. After dinner, you should go for a walk. And have it a little early too.
Gopal: But, doctor, my wife is an expert at making parathas and pakauries.
Doctor: If you like, I’ll have a word with your wife.
Gopal: No. that won’t be necessary, doctor. Thanks very much. Bye.
Doctor: Bye.

Dialogue 7:
This is an informative conversation between a
doctor and his patient. The doctor in his conversation
unfolds the kinds of food essential for a healthy body. This
information is passed on in an informal, plain and jargon-
free language. You will notice that Jeevan’s tone is
inquisitive and the doctor is authoritative and definitive.
When you speak, try to reflect these tones in your speech.

Jeevan: Good evening, doctor.
Doctor: Good evening, Jeevan. What brings you to the hospital? What can I do for-you?
Jeevan: I’ve come for a medical check-up.
Doctor: What’s wrong with you?
Jeevan: I eat plenty of good food everyday but I still don’t feel strong and energetic and …..
Doctor: And at times you feel drained of al energy.
Jeevan: Yes. Exactly.
Doctor: What is your food intake like?
Jeevan: I eat bread, gram and meat and also fat in one form or another.
Doctor: This is the real cause of your bad health.
Jeevan: Why? Aren’t meat and gram good for health?
Doctor: Yes, they are. But they aren’t enough. Chemical analysis shows that meat and gram contain a lot of protein but don’t contain enough sugar or carbohydrates that give energy to the body.
Jeevan: Is sugar so necessary for good health?
Doctor: Yes, it is. It burns inside the body to give heat and energy.
Jeevan: But doesn’t fat give energy to the body?
Doctor: Yes, it does. But the digestion of fat takes much longer time and very often the excess energy is accumulated in the form of fat in various parts of the body.
Jeevan: So I should take a little bit of sugar everyday and that should keep me smart.
Doctor: No, I don’t mean that. That would be talking like a nineteenth century doctor.
Jeevan: Why? What was wrong with nineteenth century doctors?
Doctor: They believed that the body needed only three kinds of food – protein, fat and carbohydrate and they continued believing this until some one in 1910 did an experiment on rats.
Jeevan: That’s interesting. What was the experiment about?
Doctor: Chemically pure protein, carbohydrate and fat were fed to half a dozen adult rats for forty consecutive days and it was found that the rats actually lost their health instead of growing or even maintaining their health.
Jeevan: What did that experiment show? Did it show that the kind of food the rats were fed was harmful?
Doctor: No, it simply proved that the body needed something other than protein, fat and carbohydrate and that something was ‘vitamin’.
Jeevan: What odd people you doctors are. You do an experiment on the body of a rat and then at once apply your findings to the human body.
Doctor: Your comment is significant, Jeevan, I agree. But what is good for a rat’s body is usually good for the human body as well.
Jeevan: All right. In what form should I take these vitamins?
Doctor: Drink plenty of milk and eat vegetables which are rich in vitamins or take vitamins in the concentrated form and you will be al right.
Jeevan: Thank you. I must leave now. A few more patients are waiting outside. Good night.
Doctor: Good night.





Dialogue 8:
This is an informal conversation between Ganesh
and his son, Jogesh, on the subject of loud music. Ganesh
seems to be annoyed with the untimely and excessive use of
electronic media meant to inform and entertain. You will
note that he is not against these gadgets as such but
against their improper use. Your voice should reflect this
attitude of Ganesh. At places there are exclamatory remarks.
Be specially careful in articulating them.

Ganesh: There’s a dreadful din in Geeta’s bedroom, Jogesh.
What on earth is it?
Jogesh: Oh, she’s borrowed a record- player from one of her friends, papa and she’s trying out some of her latest records.
Ganesh: Does she have to have it on quite so loud? The whole house seems to be trembling with it. Anyway, why can’t she use our radiogram?
Jogesh: Ours isn’t any good, if you really want to hear the music. For one, it’s got such a small loudspeaker that only about half the notes are audible. And, we’ve been using it for years. It’s time we got a proper record-player, with bass and tremble controls.
Ganesh: That’d be a waste of money. We hardly ever use the gramophone and when we do, the quality seems perfectly alright to me.
Jogesh: That’s because you’ve got used to it. If we had a decent machine, we’d be able to play it more often. As it is, I wouldn’t risk playing my records on it.
Ganesh: Well, we’ll have to think about it. But shut the door, would you? It’ll keep some of the noise out. I thought I might look at the play on television. When does it come? Have you seen The Radio Times?
Jogesh: Yes, it’s on the stool by the fireplace. I’d been hoping to see the soccer international between India and Iran. It’s being played this evening. And I think it’s being televised.
Ganesh: That’s right from eight to nine. And the play begins at 9.15 after the news. You must as well switch it on now. You’ll catch the end of the football match.
Jogesh: The picture takes ages to come on in this set. Ah! At last! It’s not good, is it? It looks as though they’re playing in a fog. Shall I put the big light out?
Ganesh: Yes, just leave the little light on. That’s better. I think that’s as good a picture as you can hope for. I’m afraid the tube’s going.
Jogesh: What you ought to do is to hire a set. You pay a certain amount a month, and the firm guarantees to maintain the set for you.
Ganesh: No, I think I’d rather buy one. These, modern sets are pretty reliable. Hello! Someone’s scored a goal. Would that be India or Iran?






Intonation
[In the previous topic we discussed the vibration of the vocal cords.]
Voiced sounds are produced when the vocal cords are kept loosely together to vibrate. The vibration of the vocal cords produces a musical note called voice. During normal speech, for an adult male, the vocal cords vibrate between 80 and 120 times per second and between 150 to 200 times a second in the case of an adult female. The rate at which the vocal cords vibrate is called the frequency of vibration and this determines the pitch of the voice. The more rapidly the vocal cords vibrate, the higher will be the pitch.
When we hear someone speak, we realize that he doesn’t always speak on the same note. We hear consonant vibrations in the level at which his voice is pitched. That is to say, sometimes the pitch rises and sometimes it falls. At other times, it remains level, high or low. The pattern of vibration of the pitch of the voice ( i.e., the way in which the pitch varies) constitute the intonation of a language.

A syllable on which a pitch change takes place is usually marked with one of the following signs.
1) [ ] the pitch falls from very high to very low
(the tone is called a high fall)

2) [ ] the pitch falls from mid to very low
( the tone is called a low fall)

3) [ ] the pitch rises from very low to very high.
(the tone is called high rise)

4) [ ] the pitch rises from low to mid.
(the tone is called low rise)

5) [ ] the pitch falls from about mid to low and then
rises again to mid. (the tone is called fall-rise)

6) [ ] the pitch rises from low to about mid and then
falls again to low. (the tone is called rise-fall)

An accented syllable can be said with a changing pitch or on a level pitch, high or low. If it is said on a high level pitch, it is marked [ ] with a vertical bar above and before the syllable. If it is said on a low level pitch, it is marked [ ] with a vertical bar below and before the syllable.
Ex:
1. I’ve just bought a car. ([ ] - high falling tone)
2. George is a tall boy ([ ] – high falling tone)
3. I trust you found him well ([ ] – low rising)
4. Did you say snake? ([ ] – high rising tone)
5. I saw it ten times. ([ ] – low falling tone)
6. The door is shut. ([ ] – falling rising tone)
7. I met him last night. ( [ ] –rising falling tone)

In the above examples, the syllables marked [ ] or [ ]
are said on level tones, high and low respectively and the syllables marked with the sign [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] or [ ] are those during the pronunciation of which some sort of pitch movement takes place. A syllable which is said on a level tone, high or low, is said to have a ‘static tone’ and one on which there is a pitch change is said to have a ‘kinetic tone’.

To study English Intonation, one has to consider
three important factors. They are:
a) The division of an utterance into groups.
b) The choice of a syllable on which the pitch- movement has to be initiated, and
c) The choice of a tone.

a) The division of an utterance into groups
We divide long utterances into small groups while speaking. In other words, we pause here and there in the middle of an utterance. The stretch of speech between any two pauses constitutes a group.
Ex:
Sentences without any pauses.
1. I’m going.
2. Can we go there?
3. Where do you think you are going?

Sentences divide into two groups. (So there will be one pause in the middle of each sentence)
1. When you go out, / shut the door.
2. If it rains, / stay back in the office.
3. Prices are coming down / inspite of the recent floods.
4. All those who have gone before you / have submitted to death.
5. When the cat is away/ the mice play.
Each group is called a breath group, indicating that the break up is physiological. We pause in the middle to breathe. These groups are also called sense-groups, as pause cannot be made at arbitrarily chosen places but it should be made in such a way that the sense of the utterances is not lost. These are also called tone- groups as each group forms a compact unit and must be said with a particular intonation.
Very often, punctuation gives a clue to the division of an utterance into tone groups, though it is not a sure guide. A full-stop always indicates the end of a tone group and a comma does it at times.

b) The choice of a syllable on which the pitch- movement
has to be initiated
Having divided an utterance into tone-groups, the speaker will have to choose a syllable, on which to initiate a pitch movement during speech. In connected speech as learnt, content words receive the accent and form words do not.
Ex: John and George are friends.
John, George and friends will receive the accent and and are will not. The speakers will decide on which of the three syllables John, George or friends to initiate the pitch movement. The syllable on which a pitch movement begins is called the nucleus of the tone group or the tonic syllable. Usually the choice of the nucleus will depend upon the meaning the speaker wants to convey.
Ex:
1. I want you to take the dog for a walk in the park.
( park – tonic)
2. I want you to take the dog for a walk in the park.
( walk – not to make the dog run)
3. I want you to take the dog for a walk in the park.
( dog – dog and not any other animal for a walk)

In the above sentences, prominence was given to all the content words and made one of the content words stand out from the rest by initiating a pitch movement.

4. I want you to take the dog for a walk in the park.
(You is the nucleus – the addressee but not anyone else)

5. I want you to take the dog for a walk in the park.
(I is the nucleus – he and no one else, is giving the order)
If the content does not demand that a particular syllable be made specially prominent, the last prominent syllable in a tone group will be the nucleus.

The first accented syllable in a tone-group is called the head, the most prominent syllable in a tone–group on which a pitch movement takes place is called the nucleus; the syllable between the head and the nucleus constitute the body of the tone-group, the syllables after the nucleus, if any, constitute the tail of the tone-group. The syllable before the first accented syllable, if any, constitutes the pre-head.
Ex:
Pre-head Head Body Nucleus Tail
1) It looks as if it’s rain now.
2) I’m going to mad ras to mor row.
3) - Go and get me some wa ter.
4) - Shut - up. -
5) That girl’s very beau tiful.
6) - - - Thanks -
7) It’s - - John. -
c) The choice of a tone
After dividing a sentence into tone-groups and having chosen the nucleus, the speaker has to choose one of the various tones.
Intonation in English serves a grammatical function and an attitudinal function. With the help of intonation the listeners can make out whether a particular utterance is a statement or question, a command or a request.
1) Looking for something (falling tone – a statement)
2) Looking for something? (Rising tone a question)
3) Going to Bom bay. (Falling tone – a statement)
4) Going to Bombay? ( Rising tone – a question)
5) Shut the door ( Falling tone – a command)
6) Shut the door. (Rising tone – a request)

Secondly, with the help of intonation one can find-
out the attitude or mood of the speaker – whether he is bored, annoyed, interested in the subject of conversation, sarcastic, etc.
a) The falling tone may be used in
i. Ordinary statements made with no implication.
ii. Wh – questions asked neutrally.
iii. Commands.
iv. Exclamations.

b) The raising tone may be used in
i. Incomplete utterance, often the first of the two clauses in a complex statement.
ii. Yes/ No questions.
iii. Wh- questions asked in a warm, friendly way.
iv. Polite requests and encouraging invitations.

c) The falling – rising tone may be used in
i. Special implications not verbally expressed.

The intonation of a foreign language is an
extremely difficult aspect of the language to master. From the numerous examples given in this chapter you may perhaps get a theoretical knowledge of English intonation. It is perhaps necessary to listen to a native speaker of English for a considerable length of time to gain mastery over this extremely complex aspect of spoken English.